The World History

Zollverein, or The German Customs Union established in 1834 under Prussian leadership. It created a free-trade area throughout much of Germany and is often seen as an important step in German reunification. It was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. By 1866, the Zollverein included most of the German states. The foundation of the Zollverein was the first instance in history in which independent states had consummated a full economic union without the simultaneous creation of a political federation or union.

The first revolution occurred in the field of industrialization. The transition to new manufacturing processes with an effect on both industry and economy in Britain between the 1780s and the 1850s is known as industrial revolution. It marked an important shift from rural agrarian society to a more developed urban industrial one. This shift was possible because of a variety of inventions that took place during this time period.

Henry Court (1740 -1823) invented the pudding furnace during the industrial revolution in Britain. The puddling furnace is a metalmaking technology used to create wrought iron or steel from the pig iron produced in a blast furnace. During the industrial revolution, there was a high demand for iron and the older methods were incapable of meeting this demand. Inventions like the puddling furnace allowed to close the demand and supply gap.

William I became the Prussian administrator in 1861 after the death Fredrik William IV. He was not known for his intelligence but he had a talent in appointing the correct people for any particular job. He appointed Albrecht Theodor Emil Graf von Roon who was a Prussian soldier and a statesman as the war minister.

The Gustine Treaty was signed between Austria and Prussia on 14^th August, 1865 and is seen as a diplomatic victory for Bismarck , the then Chancellor for Prussia. According to this treaty, two separate Dutch holdings were given to the countries signing the treaty. Holstein was given to Austria while, Selswig and Dutch of Launenburg went to Prussia.

The Carbonari was an informal network of secret revolutionary societies active in Italy. It was established in 1816 in Naples with members from the different societal classes. The main goals of this organization was the exclusion of non-Italians from the country and establishing a formal independency. But the society failed owing to lack of proper relationship.

Young Italy was founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini. Mazzini was an Italian politician, journalist and activist who lead the Italian revolutionary movement. He aimed for the unification of Italy and it was this reason which caused him to form Young Italy which was a political movement for Italian Youth (under the age of 40) in 1831. It was a secret society and the slogan that defined the movement's aim was: ''Union, Strength, and Liberty''. The most famous member of Young Italy was Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). After meeting Mazzini through social and political reforms back in Geneva he joined the movement around 1833. Garibaldi was sentenced to death after a failed revolt led by Mazzini in Piedmont. But Mazzini failed in his endeavor when a revolt against Austria was unsuccessful. His movement lost its importance in 1853 when the Piedmontese monarchy was favored over a democratic Italy. Italy finally achieved national unification in 1860 under the leadership of Count Cavour.

Otto Von Bismarck, the Prime Minister of Prussia was the chief hero behind the formation of Germany as a nation state. He followed the ‘Blood and Iron Policy’ and believed that only military prowess could bring about the unification of the German state. He made the unification of Germany possible with aid from the Prussian bureaucracy and the military

The Schleswig-Holstein Question:

Bismarck’s first diplomatic step was regarding the Schleswig-Holstein question. Schleswig and Holstein were two duchies were under Denmark in 1850 according to the London Protocol. The Schleswig population was mostly Danish while the population in Holstein was largely Prussian. The then King of Denmark Christian IX, wanted to keep these two duchies under his control. Thus, under the leadership of Bismarck the combined army of Austria and Prussia attacked Denmark in 1864. The Convention of Gastein was concluded in 1865 when Denmark was defeated in the war. Prussia got Schleswig and Austria got Holstein as per the convention.

Isolation of Austria:

In 1863, Bismarck gained an ally in Russia when he aided them in the suppression of the revolt of Poland. He also gained the assurance of neutrality from Napoleon III, the King of France regarding the Austro-Prussian War with the promise to give Belgium or some portions of the Rhine Valley. Along with the support of Italy, he managed to isolate Austria in the field of European Politics.

The Austro-Prussian War or the Battle of Sadowa:

Austria responding to this isolation started creating problems regarding the unification of Germany. She refused to keep Holstein under her control because of its distance from her boundaries and also wanted the return of Schleswig to Denmark. As Austria violated the Convention of Gastein, Bismarck declared war against Austria in 1866. This war was famously known as the Battle of Sadowa and continued for Seven Weeks. It concluded with the defeat of Austria.

The Treaty of Prague and formation of Germany:

The ‘Treaty of Prague’ was concluded between Austria and Prussia on August 23, 1866 following the defeat of Austria. According to this treaty, Schleswig and Holstein were given to Prussia and Austria ceded Venice to Prussia. Austria also had to pay the War- indemnity of � 30,000,00 to Prussia.

After the Treaty of Prague the formation of Germany started when the states of Schleswig, Holstein, Hanover, Nassaa and Frankfort were annexed to Prussia. The North Germany Confederation was formed when the States north to May River were annexed to Prussia.

Bismarck adopted the policy to isolate Austria in the continent to aid in the unification of Germany. In 1863, Bismarck gained an ally in Russia when he aided them in the suppression of the revolt of Poland. He also gained the assurance of neutrality from Napoleon III, the King of France regarding the Austro-Prussian War with the promise to give Belgium or some portions of the Rhine Valley. Along with the support of Italy, he managed to isolate Austria in the field of European Politics. Austria responding to this isolation started creating problems regarding the unification of Germany. She refused to keep Holstein under her control because of its distance from her boundaries and also wanted the return of Schleswig to Denmark. As Austria violated the Convention of Gastein, Bismarck declared war against Austria in 1866. This war was famously known as the Battle of Sadowa and continued for Seven Weeks. It concluded with the defeat of Austria.

The ‘Treaty of Prague’ was concluded between Austria and Prussia on August 23, 1866 following the defeat of Austria. According to this treaty, Schleswig and Holstein were given to Prussia and Austria ceded Venice to Prussia. Austria also had to pay the War- indemnity of � 30,000,00 to Prussia.

After the Treaty of Prague, the formation of Germany started when the states of Schleswig, Holstein, Hanover, Nassaa and Frankfort were annexed to Prussia. The North Germany Confederation was formed when the States north to May River were annexed to Prussia.

Italy with a long history of political fragmentation was scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire. In the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, and only Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. Northern Italy was ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, central Italy was under the Pope and southern Italian regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Not only was there political fragmentation, socially, the fragmentation was even more inherent with no common language. The following steps occurred to create a unified Italy.

1) Piedmont-Austria War: The first step towards the unification of Italy was the Piedmont- Austria War of 1869. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III was an active member of the ‘Carbonary Committee’ who agreed to help Cavour in the war against Austria. According to the pact between them, Lombardi and Venetia were to be united with Piedmont and the power of the Pope would be preserved. When Austria attacked Piedmont, the allied armies of Piedmont and France defeated Austria in the battle of Magenta and Solferino respectively. Austria was forced to sign the ‘Treaty of Villa franca’ with France and according to this treaty Lombardi was given to Piedmont. Thus, the first step towards the unification of Italy was the alliance of Lombardi with Piedmont.

2) Unification of Central Italy: The second step towards the unification of Italy was the unification of Central states like Parma, Modena and Tuscany with Piedmont. When Lord Palmerston, the then Prime Minister of England refused to interfere in the internal affair of any country, Cavour looked for aid from Napoleon III. Napoleon III was promised the territories of Savoy and Nice by Cavour, if he remained neutral in the affairs regarding Italy. Once the people of these states voted unanimously in favour of annexation, Napoleon III was handed over the territories by Cavour. Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Romagna, one of the Papal States agreed to side with Piedmont completing the second step in the unification process.

3) Annexation of Naples and Sicily: In the same time period, Garibaldi was requested to lead the revolt against the Bourbon dynasty by the people of Naples and Sicily in southern Italy. Under his leadership, the rebels were able to capture and occupy both Naples and Sicily which were annexed with Piedmont along with some portions of Rome.

4) Campaign of Rome: When Garibaldi was busy in Naples and Sicily, King Victor Emanuel II by order of Cavour marched towards Rome. The Papal army was defeated in Castelfidaro and Anacona when he attacked the Papal States on 11 September, 1960. Following this, Victor Emanuel occupied and annexed ‘Umvia’ and ‘Marches’ with Piedmont-Sardinia. During this time, Garibaldi retired to the island of Caprera after surrendering the conquered territories of Naples and Sicily to Victor Emanuel. This was the ‘fourth step’ towards the unification of Italy and this resulted in almost the whole of Italy to be united except for Venetia and Rome under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia. and The First Parliament of Italy was established when the representatives of all the states met on 18 February, 1861.

5) Annexation of Venetia: In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 Italy supported Prussia against Austria. The ‘Treaty of Prague’ was concluded between Austria and Prussia in 1866 when Austria was defeated in the battle of Sadwa. According to it, Austria ceded Venetia to Italy concluding the ‘fifth step’ towards the formation of the nation state of Italy.

6) Annexation of Rome:

In 1870 during the battle of Sedan fought between France and Prussia France withdrew its army from Rome. King Victor Emanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia took the advantage of this opportunity by attacking and capturing Rome. The last step towards the Unification of Italy was concluded on October 2, 1870, when Rome was annexed with Italy.

Unification of Italy was a momentous event in the history of the world. The three key players who made this event possible were Mazzini who is considered as the saint, Garibaldi who was the sword and Cavour who was considered to be the brain.

The transition to new manufacturing processes with an effect on both industry and economy in Britain between the 1780s and the 1850s is known as industrial revolution. It marked an important shift from rural agrarian society to a more developed urban industrial one. This shift was possible because of a variety of inventions that took place during this time period. These inventions were mechanical in nature and made industries that were less dependent on manual power but at the same time was able to produce more at cheaper and efficient rates. During this period, there was a marked shift to powered, special-purpose machinery, factories and mass production. The central roles in the Industrial Revolution were played by the iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the invention of the steam engine. The associated inventions like power looms, cotton gin, large blast furnaces, milling machines and steam locomotives improved the systems of transportation, communication and banking.

The inventions which spearheaded the industrial revolution started as far back as 1563 when Rev. William Lee invented the stocking frame which was the first major stage in the mechanisation of the textile industry. With a rising population, England saw a rise in the need for clothing. Modern inventions like the Flying Shuttle, invented by John Kay in 1733 allowed a single weaver to weave much wider fabrics, and it could be mechanized, allowing for automatic machine looms. James Hargreaves developed the spinning Jenny in 1765 which reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. Arkwright’s invented the water powered frame in 1769 which was designed for the production of cotton thread and was able to spin 128 threads at a time, which was an easier and faster method than ever before. Cartwright invented the power loom in 1787 which made cloth more affordable and thus the power loom increased demand and stimulated exports, causing a growth in industrial employment, albeit low-paid.

The ideological basis for the development of the modern nation-state is called nationalism. It was the ideological motivation that enabled the transformation of Europe. It caused the replacement rule by monarchies and foreign control of territory with newly formed national governments. The initial movement toward the modern nation-state was made through the French Revolution. This later on found further expression when new countries like Germany and Italy were formed by uniting various regional states with a common "national identity". Other European countries such as Greece, Serbia, Poland, Romania and Bulgaria, adapting nationalism were formed by uprisings against the Ottoman Empire and Russia.

The following are the reasons behind the rise of nationalism in Europe –

1) Rise of the middle class - Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. This aristocracy, though dominant were a small group, albeit a powerful one. Initially, peasants made up the majority of the population. Western Europe was characterized by the presence of tenants and small owners. Eastern and Central Europe had vast estates which were cultivated by serfs. The commercial classes emerged in western Europe once the growth of industrial production and trade led to the growth of towns. This led to the emergence of new social groups like a working-class population and middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals who were educated to a certain degree unlike the peasantry. They formed a educated liberal social group to whom the ideas of national unity held merit. They aided in the rise of nationalism and helped to abolish the privileges enjoyed by the aristocracy.

2) Liberal Nationalism - Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism. The ideology of liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. This made it an appealing concept for the newly established middle-class groups who wanted the abolishment of aristocratic privileges. Liberalism emphasized the concept of government by consent. It stood for the freedom of markets in the economic sense. The abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital was another point of emphasis as per liberal nationalism. Zollverein, or The German Customs Union established in 1834 under Prussian leadership created a free-trade area throughout much of Germany and is often seen as an important step in German reunification. It proved that harnessing economic interests aided in national unification.

3) French and British Revolution – The French and British revolutionary armies carried the slogan of "liberty, equality and brotherhood" and ideas of liberalism and national self-determinism. These armies contributed by emphasizing on national identity and considered nationhood as a form of cultural self-expression. At the end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815, promoted the concept of "legitimism" which was concerned with the assertion of traditional claims to royal authority. During this period, nationalism as a concept was still confined to small groups of intellectuals and political radicals. There occurred a period of political repression which caused nationalist agitators to go underground.

4) Revolutionaries - During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground. This led to the formation of secret societies in many European states whose purpose was to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. The ideas mostly comprised of commitment to oppose any and all monarchy and to uphold the ideals of liberty and freedom. To replace the existing monarchial system, the revolutionaries supported the creation of nation-states, giving nationalism a boost in popularity.

5) Cultural Contribution – The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. An important role was played by cultural aspects in order to create the idea of a nation. Nationalist feelings were shaped and expressed with the help of art and poetry, stories and music. Since the majority of the peasant class was illiterate, to make them understand the modern nationalist message emphasis was put on vernacular language and local folklore.

The spread and development of the ideals of European nationalism went on to not only threaten the empires ruled by colonial European nation-states but also compete and create unified nations based on the concept.

The transition to new manufacturing processes with an effect on both industry and economy in Britain between the 1780s and the 1850s is known as industrial revolution. It marked an important shift from rural agrarian society to a more developed urban industrial one. This shift was possible because of a variety of inventions that took place during this time period.

The inventions which spearheaded the industrial revolution started as far back as 1563 when Rev. William Lee invented the stocking frame which was the first major stage in the mechanisation of the textile industry. The following are the reforms and revolutions in different sectors during the industrial revolution –

1) Agricultural Sector - Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill, the Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine. Scientific rotation of crops also improved agricultural productivity which not only increased the food supply but also reduced manual labour and created more workforce for other sectors of the economy.

2) Textile industry – With a rising population, England saw a rise in the need for clothing. Modern inventions like the Flying Shuttle, invented by John Kay in 1733 allowed a single weaver to weave much wider fabrics, and it could be mechanized, allowing for automatic machine looms. James Hargreaves developed the spinning Jenny in 1765 which reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. Arkwright’s invented the water powered frame in 1769 which was designed for the production of cotton thread and was able to spin 128 threads at a time, which was an easier and faster method than ever before. Cartwright invented the power loom in 1787 which made cloth more affordable and thus the power loom increased demand and stimulated exports, causing a growth in industrial employment, albeit low-paid.

3) Iron Industry - During the first industrial revolution in Britain, when iron was required for galvanizing every major industry, iron making furnaces saw many innovations in Britain. In 1709, Abraham Darby started using coke for smelting iron which was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution. Henry Court (1740 -1823) invented the pudding furnace during the industrial revolution in Britain. The puddling furnace was a metalmaking technology used to create wrought iron or steel from the pig iron produced in a blast furnace. Scottish foreman James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 patented the use of hot blast furnace which was a major breakthrough.

4) Transportation Sector - Improvement of roads and canals were important during this period as a good transport system aided in the movement of raw materials and finished goods in a cheap, effective manner. The Industrial Revolution was responsible behind the improvement in transport infrastructure with a road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network.

5) Telecom Sector – The main contributors here were Samuel Morse who invented a functional telegram device in 1844 and Graham Bell who invented the telephone in 1876.

After 1848, conservatives in Europe often mobilized nationalist sentiments for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. This caused a methodical shift of nationalism in Europe away from its association with democracy and revolution. The formation of Germany as a nation state was one of the most important events in the history of the world. The seeds of nationalism were first sowed by Napoleon Bonaparte in Germany. He established the ‘Confederation of the Rhine’ after destroying three hundred small states of the Holy Roman Empire. The establishment of ‘German Confederation’ of thirty-nine states was declared in the Congress of Vienna. The unity among the ‘German Confederation of the States’ was brought about by a carefully planned exchange of culture, mediator roles played by universities, the rapid growth of industries etc. The main hurdles in the unification of Germany were as follows –

1) Austrian interference in German problems

2) Political, economic and social differences amongst the states.

3) English interference in German affairs.

4) Weak military power in the larger states.

5) Lack of public social awareness regarding the unification.

6) Dominance of papal regime in the southern states.

The main supporting elements behind the unification of Germany are as follows –

1) The Zollverein or Economic Union: The national economy of Germany was controlled by the ‘Economic Union’ or ‘Zolleverein’. Free trade was established among the various countries like Prussia and different German states who joined this Union barring Austria. Prussia became the leader of German States, once all the German states joined the ‘Zolleverein’ by 1850. This allowed Prussia to gain economic importance which later aided in its military and political growth.

2) Intellectual Movement : The system which was adopted in the Vienna Congress created hurdles in the unification of ‘German Confederation of States’, which was counter acted upon by the expressions of the intellectuals who lived in different parts of Germany regarding the unification. People were deeply influenced by the ideas and writings of the German Philosophers like Hegel and Schopanheuer, Scientists like Hemholtz and Virchow and the historians like Sybel and Droysen. The propagation of liberal national ideas and thoughts took place in the Gentian Universities like Jena, Leipzig, Munich and Berlin which filtered down to the common masses. This created a want for a a unified Germany among the masses.

3) Rapid Industrialisation: The Prussian Finance Minister Massen abolished restrictions on tariff which caused a rapid growth in the field of industries. Economic growth was strengthened with the growth of railways, trade and commerce among the German States which led to its unification.

4) Bismarck’s Contribution - Ottovon Bismarck was the chief hero of the formation of Germany as a nation state. He was appointed as the Prime Minister of Prussia in 1862 and followed the ‘Blood and Iron Policy’. The unification of Germany could be possible owing to his subtle diplomatic exercises and adept use of military. He was aided by the Prussian bureaucracy and the military in his effort.

Bismarck’s main objective was to unify Germany and he believed that this could only be done through military power and not by the common people. This led to three wars over seven years against Austria, Denmark and France.

The wars ended with Prussian victory and led to the unification of the German confederation.

Italy with a long history of political fragmentation was scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire. In the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, and only Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. Northern Italy was ruled by Austrian Habsburgs, central Italy was under the Pope and southern Italian regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Not only was there political fragmentation, socially, the fragmentation was even more inherent with no common language. To change this scenario Risorgimento (literally, "resurgence") was a movement that was undertaken. The movement wanted to unite Italy into one cultural and political entity. A failed attempt to unite Italy as a democracy was carried out by Giuseppe Mazzini and his leading pupil, Giuseppe Garibaldi. Their failure has been attributed to the resurgence of conservative power in Europe. It was only under the politician named Camillo di Cavour who finally, using the tools of realpolitik, united Italy under the crown of Sardinia. The following steps occurred to create a unified Italy.

1) Piedmont-Austria War: The first step towards the unification of Italy was the Piedmont- Austria War of 1869. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III was an active member of the ‘Carbonary Committee’ who agreed to help Cavour in the war against Austria. According to the pact between them, Lombardi and Venetia were to be united with Piedmont and the power of the Pope would be preserved. When Austria attacked Piedmont, the allied armies of Piedmont and France defeated Austria in the battle of Magenta and Solferino respectively. Austria was forced to sign the ‘Treaty of Villa franca’ with France and according to this treaty Lombardi was given to Piedmont. Thus, the first step towards the unification of Italy was the alliance of Lombardi with Piedmont.

2) Unification of Central Italy: The second step towards the unification of Italy was the unification of Central states like Parma, Modena and Tuscany with Piedmont. When Lord Palmerston, the then Prime Minister of England refused to interfere in the internal affair of any country, Cavour looked for aid from Napoleon III. Napoleon III was promised the territories of Savoy and Nice by Cavour, if he remained neutral in the affairs regarding Italy. Once the people of these states voted unanimously in favour of annexation, Napoleon III was handed over the territories by Cavour. Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Romagna, one of the Papal States agreed to side with Piedmont completing the second step in the unification process.

3) Annexation of Naples and Sicily: In the same time period, Garibaldi was requested to lead the revolt against the Bourbon dynasty by the people of Naples and Sicily in southern Italy. Under his leadership, the rebels were able to capture and occupy both Naples and Sicily which were annexed with Piedmont along with some portions of Rome.

4) Campaign of Rome: When Garibaldi was busy in Naples and Sicily, King Victor Emanuel II by order of Cavour marched towards Rome. The Papal army was defeated in Castelfidaro and Anacona when he attacked the Papal States on 11 September, 1960. Following this, Victor Emanuel occupied and annexed ‘Umvia’ and ‘Marches’ with Piedmont-Sardinia. During this time, Garibaldi retired to the island of Caprera after surrendering the conquered territories of Naples and Sicily to Victor Emanuel. This was the ‘fourth step’ towards the unification of Italy and this resulted in almost the whole of Italy to be united except for Venetia and Rome under the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia. and The First Parliament of Italy was established when the representatives of all the states met on 18 February, 1861.

5) Annexation of Venetia: In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 Italy supported Prussia against Austria. The ‘Treaty of Prague’ was concluded between Austria and Prussia in 1866 when Austria was defeated in the battle of Sadwa. According to it, Austria ceded Venetia to Italy concluding the ‘fifth step’ towards the formation of the nation state of Italy.

6) Annexation of Rome:

In 1870 during the battle of Sedan fought between France and Prussia France withdrew its army from Rome. King Victor Emanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia took the advantage of this opportunity by attacking and capturing Rome. The last step towards the Unification of Italy was concluded on October 2, 1870, when Rome was annexed with Italy.

Unification of Italy was a momentous event in the history of the world. The three key players who made this event possible were Mazzini who is considered as the saint, Garibaldi who was the sword and Cavour who was considered to be the brain.