Chemistry In Everyday Life

Antiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue such as skin to reduce the possibility of infection. They cannot be indigested.

Bithional has antiseptic properties and so it is added to soaps to reduce the bad odour produced by bacterial decomposition of organic matter on the skin that is to keep us fresh.

Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Also, dilute solutions of some disinfectants can be used as antiseptic.

Birth control pills (BCPs) contain man-made forms of 2 hormones called estrogen and progestin. These hormones are made naturally in a woman's ovaries.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) enhances ovulation.

Aspirin is an analgesic used to get relief from pain. But they fall under the category of non-narcotic analgesics.

Along with that, aspirin is effective in relieving pain and also it has anti-blood clotting action. It is a neurologically active drug.

Drugs are classified on the basis of –

• Chemical structure

• Basis of drug action

• Basis of molecular targets

• Basis of pharmacological effect

Out of which classification on the basis of molecular targets is most useful for medicinal chemists.

This classification is based on the macromolecule the drugs interact with. The drug targets can be lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates or any other such biomolecule. The drugs with similar structures have similar reactions with such biomolecules.

Tranquilizers are basically drugs which are used for treatment of anxiety, tension, fear or any disturbance of mind and helps in sleeping. It is therefore an antidepressant as it helps in restoring the balance of neurotransmitters in our brain. E.g. Phenelzine (C₈H₁₂N₂) or Nardil.

Noradrenaline is an organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as a hormone and neurotransmitter and tranquilisers function by inhibiting the enzymes which catalyse the degradation of noradrenaline. So, it relieves from any anxiety, fear or tension.

So, tranquilisers are neither any type of narcotic drugs nor do they relieve pain and fever. They do not affect the message transfer from nerve to receptor.

Salvarsan is a drug that was introduced at the beginning of the 1910 as the first effective treatment for syphilis.

Narrow spectrum antibiotics are active against a selected group of bacterial types. They are active against either gram positive or gram negative bacteria as they are active against a selected group of bacterial types.

Tranquilizers are basically drugs which are used for treatment of anxiety, tension, fear or any disturbance of mind and helps in sleeping. It is therefore an antidepressant as it helps in restoring the balance of neurotransmitters in our brain. E.g. Phenelzine (C₈H₁₂N₂) or Nardil.

Bithional has antiseptic properties and so it is added to soaps to reduce the bad odour produced by bacterial decomposition of organic matter on the skin that is to keep us fresh.

Laundry soaps contain a mixture of soap (sodium stearate), builders (sodium carbonate) and rosin. Rosin is used as because it makes the soap lather well.

Sodium lauryl sulphate also known as Sodium dodecyl sulphate, is a widely used surfactant in cleaning products, cosmetics, and personal care products. It is a highly effective anionic surfactant used to remove oily stains and residues.

Equanil is an example of tranquilizer. Tranquilizers are basically drugs which are used for treatment of anxiety, tension, fear or any disturbance of mind and helps in sleeping. It is therefore an antidepressant as it helps in restoring the balance of neurotransmitters in our brain.

Laundry soaps contain a mixture of soap (sodium stearate), builders (sodium carbonate) and rosin (sodium rosinate). Rosin is used as because it makes the soap lather well.

When glycerol is added to soaps, it absorbs water from the air and thus attracts moisture to your skin. So, it prevents rapid drying. So, glycerol is used as a humectant, which means it prevents or retains moisture.

Non-ionic detergents, thus from the name we get to know that the surfactant present on them is uncharged. thus we can see the surfactant is uncharged, so it is therefore a non-ionic detergent. Non-ionic detergents are used in dishwashing powder.

Non-ionic detergents, thus from the name we get to know that the surfactant present on them is uncharged.

thus, in polyethylene glycol, we can see the surfactant is uncharged, so it is therefore a non-ionic detergent. Non-ionic detergents are used in dishwashing powder.

For the classification on the basis of molecular targets, it is:-

The classification based on the macromolecule the drugs interact with. The drug targets can be lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates or any other such biomolecule. The drugs with similar structures have similar reactions with such biomolecules.

Inhibitor binding is either reversible or irreversible. Reversible inhibitors bind non-covalently with enzyme molecule.

An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. They inhibit the catalytic activity of the enzyme and prevent the binding of substrate. When they are classified, inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive.

Sucralose is a tri-chloro derivative of sucrose is an artificial sweetener. Its appearance and taste are similar to that of sugar but is 600 times sweeter than sugar. Also it does not provide calories.

Artificial sweeteners like sucralose do not provide calories. Its appearance and taste are similar to that of sugar but is 600 times sweeter than sugar. So it will not enhance nutritional value of food.

Whereas the presence of either minerals, vitamins or amino acids will enhance the nutritional value of food as they contribute in some or the other ways for the proper functioning of our body.

To figure out the incorrect statements about the receptor

proteins, let us first know about them in a nutshell

• They are crucial to body’s communication process

• Majority of these are embedded in cell membranes

• Their small part possessing active site projects out of the surface of the membrane and opens on the outside region of the cell membrane when they are embedded in cell membrane

• Certain chemicals known as chemical messengers through which message is transferred between two neurons or between neurons to muscle are received at the binding sites of the receptor proteins

• Shape of the receptor site changes to accommodate a messenger, this brings about the transfer of message into the cell by chemical messenger without entering the cell.

• Large number of different receptors in the body with different shape, structure and amino acid composition leads to selectivity for chemical messenger over other.

Hence, from the above discussion we can conclude that following according to question options (ii) and (iv) are correct and options (i) and (iii) are incorrect.

Sodium hydrogen-carbonate is not used as a food preservative that is option (ii) because it’s an anticaking agent used to prevent the formation of lumps.

Now let us revise where the other preservatives can be used

(i) Table salt is used to preserve pickles

(ii) Cane sugar can be used as preservative to make jam and jellies

(iii) Benzoic acid can preserve sweets, ice cream etc.

Hence, according to question option(ii) is correct rest options (i), (iii) and (iv) are incorrect.

To answer this question let us know the definition of

antiseptic

ANTISEPTIC: These are the chemicals which either kill or prevent

the growth of microorganism and are applied to the

living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and

diseased skin surfaces.

Now if we look on the options, we come to know that

(i) CHCl₃ (Chloroform) was used as the an anesthetic to reduce pain during medical procedures. Hence it will not come under antiseptic.

(ii) CHI₃ (Iodoform) is an antiseptic as it is used for wounds.

(iii) Boric acid in dilute aqueous solution works as a weak antiseptic for eyes.

(iv) 0.3 ppm aqueous solution of Cl₂ acts as a disinfectant and hence not the antiseptic.

Therefore options (ii) and (iii) are the suitable answer to the question. Options (i) and (iv) are incorrect.

Basically, barbiturates are the derivatives of barbituric acid, which is veronal, amytal, nembutal, luminal and seconal. These are an important class of tranquilizers.

(a) STRUCTURE OF VERONAL

(b) STRUCTURE OF AMYTAL

(c) STRUCTURE OF NEMBUTAL

(d) STRUCTURE OF LUMINAL

(e) STRUCTURE OF SECONAL

Let’s discuss a little about tranquilizers too.

TRANQUILIZERS: These are a class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of stress, and mild or even severe mental diseases. These relieve anxiety, stress, and irritability or excitement by inducing a sense of well-being.

Also, barbiturates are hypnotic which implies they are sleep producing agents.

Hence, options (i) and (ii) are correct about barbiturates. Options (iii) and (iv) are incorrect.

Any member of a group of synthetic antibiotics containing the sulfanilamide molecular structure is known as sulpha drug

or sulfonamide.

Hence according to the definition Sulphapyridine and prontosil must the answer to the question.

Prontosil in the body is converted to sulphanilamide and hence will come under sulpha drugs.

Therefore options (i) and (ii) are correct. Options (iii) and (iv) are incorrect.

Let us understand antidepressants with the example of Noradrenaline before answering the question.

ANTIDEPRESSANTS: Noradrenaline acts as neuro-transmitters and play a role in mood changes. Low level of noradrenaline leads to low signal-sending activity and hence leading to depression. So basically, if a person has low level of noradrenaline, he/she may suffer from depression.

Therefore, under such situation antidepressant drugs are required.

Antidepressant drugs inhibit enzymes which catalyse the degradation of the noradrenaline. Once the enzyme is inhibited, then noradrenaline is slowly metabolized and activates its receptors for longer periods of time, thereby counterbalance the effect of depression.

Hence, antidepressants can be described as the drugs which come inhibits the enzymes which catalyse the degradation of the noradrenaline.

Options (i) Iproniazid and (ii) Phenelzine are the antidepressants drugs

Whereas (iii) Equanil is a tranquilizer which is used in controlling depression and hypertension. (controls depression but isn’t an antidepressant).

And (iv) Salvarsan is a type of antibiotic.

Hence, options (i) and (ii) are correct and options (iii) and (iv) incorrect.

Let us discuss about penicillin and reach the conclusion

Following are some point about penicillin: -

• It is an antibacterial fungus.

• Ampicillin and Amoxycillin are synthetic modifications of penicillin.

• It has bactericidal effect. {Bactericidal effect means bacteria is being is killed because of the antibiotic}

• It comes under narrow spectrum antibiotic. {The full range of micro-organisms attacked by an antibiotic is called its spectrum. Broad spectrum antibiotics are medicines effective against several different types of harmful micro-organisms. For example, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, etc.}

Hence, from the above points it can be concluded that options (i), (ii) and are correct. Options (iii) and (iv) are incorrect.

Let’s define antacids first.

ANTACIDS: Substances which remove the excess acid and raise the pH to appropriate level in stomach are called antacids.

Options (ii) Sodium hydrogencarbonate and (iv) Magnesium hydroxide are administered as antacids. Although these treatments control only symptoms, and not the cause. Hence the patients can’t be treated easily.

Sodium carbonate [option (i)] is used as water softener, food processing aid, pH modifier swimming pool chemical and an electrolyte. (mild preservative)

Aluminium carbonate [option (iv)] is used in the food industry as a raising agent for the flat baked goods, such as cookies and crackers. (food additive).

Hence, options (ii) and (iii) are correct and options (i) and (iv) incorrect.

Let’s describe antihistamines before answering the question

ANTIHISTAMINES: These drugs are used to treat allergy, e.g., skin rashes. Since the allergic reactions are caused due to liberation of histamine in the body, that is why these drugs are called antihistamines. These drugs are also called as anti-allergic drugs.

Options (i) Ranitidine and (iv) Cimetidine are the antihistamines, which are antacids as they prevent the interaction of histamine the receptors present in the stomach wall.

Options (ii) Brompheniramine and (iii) Terfenadine are only antihistamines.

Hence, options (i) and (iv) are correct. Options (ii) and (iii) are incorrect.

Veronal and luminal are the derivatives of barbituric acid which are an important class of tranquilizers.

1). Let us now discuss about barbituric acid. Derivatives of barbituric acid, which is Verona, amytal, Nembutal, luminal and seconal constitute an important class of tranquilizers. These derivatives are called barbiturates. Barbiturates are hypnotic that is sleep producing agents.

2). Non-narcotic analgesics (non-addictive) are the non-addictive drugs reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of consciousness, mental confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some other disturbances of nervous system.

3). Antiallergic drugs controls allergies by controlling histamines. (histamine is a potent vasodilator. It has various functions.)

4). Neurologically active drugs are antidepressant drugs which inhibit the enzymes which catalyse the degradation of noradrenaline.

Hence, option (i)Tranquilizer is the correct option. Options (ii), (iii) and (iv) are incorrect.

Let us discuss about the anionic detergents to answer this

question.

Point to discuss are as follows: -

• They are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons.

• Obtained by neutralization of Alkyl hydrogensulphate with alkali.

• The anionic part of the molecule is involved in the cleansing action.

• Sodium salt of alkybenzenesulphonates are an important class of anionic detergents.

Hence from the above discussion we can conclude that options (i) and (iv) are correct. Options (ii) and (iii) are incorrect.

Let’s analyze each option to find out which one are correct

Options (i) suggests that cationic detergents have germicidal properties which is true. (Germicidal properties means that the germs are being killed and terminated by the cationic detergents.)

Option (ii) says that bacteria can degrade the highly branched chains which is false. It’s easier to degrade straight chains by the bacteria

Option (iii) is correct as some synthetic detergents can give foam in ice cold water. For example, Cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide, Sodium 4-(1-dodecy) benzenesulphonate (SDS) etc.

Option(iv) comments that synthetic detergents are not soaps which is true. They do have all the properties of soaps but is not actually soap.

Hence options (i) and (iv) are the correct options. Options (ii) and (iii) are incorrect.

Drugs have an average molecular mass of 100-500u. A drug is a medicine or other substance that has a phycological effect when ingested or otherwise introduced in the body. There are various types of drugs namely stimulants, depressants, opium related painkillers, hallucinogens.

A medicine is a drug or preparation for the treatment or prevention of disease. medicines are used in the treatment of diseases and making one feel better than before. Medicines can be oral or injectable. Medicine aims to promote and maintain health.

Antiseptics are chemicals which are applied on living body tissues in case of cuts, wounds etc to prevent the growth of microorganisms. They are antimicrobial drugs that help in eliminating microbial action on the body. Antiseptics are different from disinfectants as the former are applied of living bodies whereas the latter is applied on nonliving things.

The drugs which are used to treat microbial functions are termed as antimicrobial drugs.i) antibiotics ii)sulpha drugs iii) antiseptics iv) disinfectants all these come under antimicrobial drugs which helps in controlling the microbial activities. They also include antifungals , antiprotozoals and antivirals.

Receptors are biological transducers that convert energy from external and internal environment into electrical impulses. receptors may be found on the cell surface membrane or within the cytoplasm. They respond to hydrophobic ligand molecules that are able to travel across the plasma membrane.

Hyperacidity is caused by an imbalance between acid secreting mechanism of the stomach and proximal intestine. hyperacidity is cause by the increase in the amount of acid in the stomach. It results into ulcers or gastric refluxes. This results in excess production of acid which leads to acidity.

This is the site other than the active site in which the drugs can bind and cause its action. An enzyme is a substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction. They help in regulating the chemical reactions taking place in the body.

A substrate is a surface on which an organism lives. In biochemistry, the substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. forces such as

i) Van der waal force

ii) hydrogen bonding

iii) dipole dipole interactions

iv) ionic bonds etc are involved in the binding of substrate.

Though the antibiotic arsphenamine and azodye are difference in species yet they possess a common corner. The type of linkage possessed by the antibiotic arsphenamine is similar to that of azodye. antibiotic arsphenamine posses –As=As- linkage which is similar to –N=N- linkage in azodye.

Sleeping pills consist of tranquilizers as a drug. A tranquilizer is a drug which is designed for the treatment of anxiety, fear, agitation and disturbances of mind especially to reduce states of anxiety and fear. Tranquilizers help in controlling depression.

Aspirin prevents blood clotting in the heart as it has anti-bloodclotting action. This action helps in preventing heart attack. Aspirine is also used to reduce fever and relieve mild to moderate pain. It is also used to reduce the condition of swelling at the time of arthiritis.

Antacids are drugs that counteract acid in the stomach and antihistamines are drugs that block histamine action in the body .both antacids and antiallergic drugs work on different receptors in the body and hence they cannot replace each other.

Soft soaps are the soaps that contain potassium salt of fatty acid as a major component. they are the soaps which are easily soluble. The soap is prepared by the process of soaponification. Glycerol is the side product of the soaponification reaction.

Excess of alkali can be found out using acid-base titration.

The alkali that is formed during the hydrolyses of oil during soap preparation may be a cause of excess alkali in the soap. Soap is prepared by the process called saponification.

This type of foaming is caused due to non-biodegradable detergents present in the water even after the sewage treatment. Detergents can be classified as biodegradable and non-biodegradable detergents. A detergent is a water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt to make them more soluble.

A detergent is a water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt to make them more soluble. anionic detergents are used in toothpastes to clean teeth and form suitable foam. Eg : sodium or ammonium lauryl sulphate

Cationic detergents are used in hair shampoos. eg: cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide. Cationic detergents are quarternary ammonium salts of acetates, chlorides or bromides. they are called so because the cationic part of these detergents contain a long hydrocarbon chain.

Dishwashing soaps contain non-ionic detergents. these are synthetic detergents. a detergent is a water-soluble cleansing agent which combines with impurities and dirt to make them more soluble. They are effective cleanser and acts as surface-active agents.

The diagram showing micelle formation of CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3-Na+
Is as below;

In the above micelle formation, SO3- ion stay on the periphery of the above micelle.

Straight chain hydrocarbons in synthetic detergents are cause of easy biodegradability whereas branching causes non-biodegradability. Thus lesser the branching lesser is the non-polluting nature of the detergent and increased in branching causes the polluting nature of the detergent to increase.

Soaps are biodegradable in nature, so it is safer to use soaps in comparison to detergents which are non-biodegradable in nature. Biodegradable soaps don’t have a polluting nature and thus are safer to use as per environmental concern.

Analgesics are drugs that help in eliminating pain. These drugs are neurologically active drugs .they are safer to use as they do not hamper the nervous system or cause any other impairment. They help in eliminating pain without causing any other side effects.

Noradrenaline is a hormone that controls mood swings. low level of noradrenaline hampers the signal sending activity of the body and causes depression. Tranquilizers help In increasing the concentration of noradrenaline in the body and thus help in curing depression.

The basic differences between antiseptics and disinfectants are given below;
1. Antiseptic applied on living tissues whereas Disinfectants applied on non-living objetcs.
2. Antiseptics are antimicrobial in nature whereas Disinfectants are antimicrobial too.
3. Antiseptics are applied on cuts, wounds etc whereas Disinectants are applied to toilets, drains etc.

Magnesium hydroxide is insoluble in the stomach so it does not makes the stomach alkaline and thus is a better antacid as it does not allow the ph to rise from 7 whereas

Sodiumhydrogencarbonate being soluble dissolves in the stomach and thus making the stomach alkaline and also makes the pH of the stomach to rise above neutral.

Analgesics are group of drugs that help in achieving the state of analgesia i.e relief from pain. analgesics which are obtained from opium poppy are termed as opiate. They are narcotic in nature. These drugs act in different ways on the peripheral and central nervous system.

These drugs help in reducing pain such as cardiac pain ,postoperative pain, during childbirth etc. they also help in producing sleep. A narcotic is an addictive drug that reduces pain, induces sleep and may alter mood or behaviour.

These are the drugs that bind to the receptor site and prevent the natural action of the enzyme. These drugs may reduce the effectiveness of one or more of the drugs. They do not allow the enzyme action to happen.

Antimicrobial drugs help in the elimination of microbes such as bacteria, fungi etc. they are used to treat microbial infection. These drugs include antivirals, antiprotozoals, antivirals, antifungals etc. they stop the microbial action on a body.

Glycerol is the side product during soap formation.

The process of soap formation is referred as saponification. It is the process that involves the conversion of fat or oil into soap and

alcohol by action of heat in the presence of aqueous alkali.

Bathing soaps are usually soft whereas washing soaps are usually hard. Bathing soaps are free from unused alkali whereas washing soaps contain some residual alkali.
1. Bathing Soaps are usually soft whereas Washing soaps are usually hard.
2. Bathing Soaps are free from unused whereas Washing Soaps contain residual alkali. Bathing soaps are usually soft whereas washing soaps are usually hard. Bathing soaps are free from unused alkali whereas washing soaps contain some residual alkali.
1. Bathing Soaps are usually soft whereas Washing soaps are usually hard.
2. Bathing Soaps are free from unused whereas Washing Soaps contain residual alkali.

Soaps are dissolved in ethanol and subjected to evaporation. This produces transparent soaps. It is a hot process soap that uses solvents to dissolve the soap crystal that forms allowing light to pass therefore creating transparency.

Antacids do not control the production of excess acid. On the other hand antihistamines suppress the action of histamines and control the excess acid production. Thus they control both the symptoms and the cause. Hence antihistamine has a wider action and are more profitable to use.

Histamines controls the release of pepsin and HCl in the stomach. It is also associated with the problem of common cold and allergies. They are also associated with the problem of hyperacidity in the stomach. They are targeted by antihistamines that curb their actions

Tranquilizers increase the level of noradrinaline in the body thus curing the feeling of depression. Low levels of noradrenaline a cause of depression and anxiety. Tranquilizers help in regulating the amount of noradrenaline and thus curing the feeling of depression. They are also used in sleeping pills.

Some drugs block the active site of the enzyme and thus prevent the binding of substrate to the enzyme . it thus inhibit the enzyme activity, thus these drugs are called enzyme inhibitors.

The substances added to soaps to make it useful for a specific purpose are termed as fillers. Like addition of deodorants to some soaps.

Soaps are prepared by the process of saponification. It is the process that involves the conversion of fat or oil into soap and alcohol by action of heat in the presence of aqueous alkali.

Low calorie drinks contains artificial sweetening agents that are much more sweeter than normal sugar but do not produce any energy. Thus they are helpful for health conscious people as they consume sweet food but do not gain extra calories . sucralose and aspartame are the examples of some famous artificial weetning agents.

A preservative is a substance that is added to products such as food, beverages etc to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes .pickle contains table salt and sugar vegetable oils which act as preservatives. thus prevention pickels from spoiling.

Saccharin is an artificial sweetening agent with effectively no food energy. It is about 300-400 times as sweet as sucrose. Saccharic acid is a product of oxidation of glucose and conc HNo3. It is also called glucaric acid . its salts are called glucarates.

Sucralose which is 600 times sweeter than sucrose. It is a zero-calorie artificial sweetener and does not contain and food energy. Sucralose is made from sugar in a multistep chemical process. Splenda is the most famous sucralose based product.

i)aspartic acid

ii) phenylalanine

are two a-amino acids which form a dipeptide which is 100 times more sweeter than cane sugar.

It is used as a sweetening agent in cold foods and soft drinks. It cannot be used in cooking foods it will become unstable at higher temperatures. Cold foods and soft drinks are kept at a low temperature sufficiently enough for aspartame to remain stable.

Sodium salts of sorbic acid, benzoic acid, propanoic acid are used as food preservatives.

Food preservatives are those substances or chemical which are added to products such as food, beverages, pharmaceutical drugs, paints, biological samples, cosmetics, wood and many other products to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by undesirable chemical changes.

They reduce the affinity of the substrate for the active site by changing the shape of the active site so that the substrate cannot recognize it.

Thus, it reduces the activity of the enzyme as the substrate is unable to identify the active side and thus cannot attack upon it.

Receptor protein are present in the cell membrane with the active site projecting out of the surface of the membrane.

When the bond formed between an enzyme and an inhibitor is a strong covalent bond, the enzyme to get blocked permanently due to strong forces of attraction.

Strong bond have great affinity and thus these strong forces are unable to break and the enzyme prohibits its action.

(i) Ranitidine – (c) Antihistamine

Histamines are nitrogenous compounds found inside human tissues which cause dilation of capillaries, contraction of some muscles and are released during allergic reactions. Thus antihistamines are those medicines which suppress these allergic symptoms.

Ranitidine(C₁₃H₂₂N₄O₃S popularly known as Zantac) is used as antihistamines to suppress or to narrow the blood vessels or any of the relating effects which are caused during an allergic reaction.

Rantidine

(ii) Furacine - (d) Antiseptic

Furacine (C₆H₆N₄O₄) is another nitrogenous organic compound is used as an antiseptic. It works by killing bacteria or any other microorganisms by stopping their outgrowth. It is also used to treat infected skin burns.

Furacine

(iii) Phenelzine – (a) Tranquilizers

Tranquilizers are basically drugs which are used for treatment of anxiety, tension, fear or any disturbance of mind and helps in sleeping.

Phenelzine (C₈H₁₂N₂) or Nardil is therefore an antidepressant or a tranquilizer as it helps in restoring the balance of neurotransmitters in our brain.

(iv) Chloramphenicol – (b) Antibiotic

Antibiotics are powerful medicines which are used to kill bacteria or inhibit their growth. Thus they help in fighting bacterial infections.

Chloramphenicol (C₁₁H₁₂Cl₂N₂O₅) is also an antibiotic used for the treatment of bacterial infections. It is used in the alternative treatment of meningitis, typhoid, dysentery, pneumonia. Along with that it is also used as an eye ointment for conjunctivitis.

Chloramphenicol

(i) Soap chips – (b) Small broken pieces of soap formed from melting

Soap chips involve melted soaps. They are formed when melted soap is made to fall in a cool cylinder while scrapping off the soaps in small pieces due to the effect of melting.

(ii) Soap granules – (a) Dried miniature soap bubbles.

If we look at the texture or the composure of soap granules, we find that the texture is very dried and flaky. They are formed miniature soap bubbles when they are dried.

(iii) Soap powder – (d) Soap powder + builders like Na₂CO₃ and Na₃PO₄

Builders are basically materials which maintain the cleaning efficiency of a detergent or soap. They work by inactivating the water hardness where phosphates and carbonates as well as silicates of Sodium are involved.

Since soap powders require maintaining the cleaning efficiency, builders are used along with soap powder itself.

(iv) Scouring soap – (c) Soap powder + abrasives + builders (Na₂CO₃ + Na₃PO₄)

Scouring soaps are those soaps which remove dirt, grease and other tough substances by some rough or abrasive materials with hard scrubbing along with some builders. Builders are basically materials which maintain the cleaning efficiency of a detergent or soap. They work by inactivating the water hardness where phosphates and carbonates as well as silicates of Sodium are involved.

(i) CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO(CH₂CH₂O)_nCH₂CH₂OH - (c) Nonionic detergent

Detergent involves surfactants (compounds which lower the surface tension between two substances – solid or liquid or both of them). As we all know, they have cleaning properties and so they are used in laundries. Their properties are very similar to that of soaps but soaps are comparatively less soluble in water.

Detergents are classified depending upon the electrical charge present on the surfactant.

Non-ionic detergents, thus from the name we get to know that the surfactant present on them is uncharged. CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO(CH₂CH₂O)_nCH₂CH₂OH thus we can see the surfactant is uncharged, so it is therefore a non-ionic detergent.

(ii) C₁₇H₃₅ COO^–Na⁺ - (d) Soap

As we know, soaps are cleaning agents. They are usually made by reacting alkali (eg. sodium hydroxide) with naturally occurring fat or fatty acids. Therefore we get salts of fatty acids.

Soaps have the general formula (RCO₂⁻)_nMⁿ⁺ (Where R is an alkyl, M is a metal and n is the charge of the cation).

The given compound is sodium stearate - C₁₇H₃₅ COO^–Na⁺ . It satisfies the general formula of soap which is (RCO₂⁻)_nMⁿ⁺ . R is -C₁₇H₃₅ group, M is Na and n is 1. So this is an example of soap.

Sodium stearate is produced by reacting stearic acid(fatty acid) with sodium hydroxide(alkali). The reaction is as follows :-

(iii) CH₃—(CH₂)₁₀CH₂SO₃^– Na⁺ - (b) Anionic detergent

Detergent involves surfactants (compounds which lower the surface tension between two substances – solid or liquid or both of them). As we all know, they have cleaning properties and so they are used in laundries. Their properties are very similar to that of soaps but soaps are comparatively less soluble in water.

Detergents are classified depending upon the electrical charge present on the surfactant.

Anionic detergents have the surfactant group as sulphonates. In the compound CH₃—(CH₂)₁₀CH₂SO₃^– Na⁺, we can see the presence of charge, along with that it has the presence of an anionic sulphonate group. Thus, the given molecule is an anionic detergent.

(iv) - (a) Cationic detergent.

Detergent involves surfactants (compounds which lower the surface tension between two substances – solid or liquid or both of them). As we all know, they have cleaning properties and so they are used in laundries. Their properties are very similar to that of soaps but soaps are comparatively less soluble in water.

Detergents are classified depending upon the electrical charge present on the surfactant.

Cationic detergents have the cationic surfactant as a quaternary ammonium group.

In the compound

we can see the presence of charge, along with that it has the presence of a cationic quaternary ammonium group. Thus, the given molecule is an cationic detergent.

(i) - (c) Hair conditioner.

Hair conditioner or shampoo includes cationic surfactants which we know that they have a cationic quaternary ammonium group present.

This is because, hair when they are wet possess a slight negative charge and the hair conditioner, due to the presence of cationic surfactants, have the cationic quaternary group and thus it sticks to the hair due to static attraction.

(ii) - (d) Toothpaste

The compound given to us is an anionic detergent, as it possess the anionic suphonic group. The anionic detergent is responsible for producing foaming effects. Also it helps in the cleaning of our mouth. Due to all these features, it is used in toothpaste.

(iii) - (b) Laundry soaps

Laundry soaps contain a mixture of soap (sodium stearate), builders (sodium carbonate) and rosin. Rosin is used as because it makes the soap lather well.

(iv) CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO(CH₂CH₂O)_nCH₂CH₂OH – (a) Dishwashing powder.

Non-ionic detergents, thus from the name we get to know that the surfactant present on them is uncharged. CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO(CH₂CH₂O)_nCH₂CH₂OH thus we can see the surfactant is uncharged, so it is therefore a non-ionic detergent. Non-ionic detergents are used in dishwashing powder.

(i) Antagonists – (b) Binds to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function

Antagonists in biochemistry, is a type of receptor ligand which binds and blocks a receptor by which the biologic response is dampened. Instead of activating, its function is inhibitory. For example dopamine antagonist is a drug which blocks the dopamine receptors.

(ii) Agonist – (d) Mimic the natural messenger

The functioning nature of an agonist is complementary to that of an antagonist.

Agonists are chemical which binds to a receptor and activates a receptor to produce a biological response. Thus its action is activating.

When they switch on the receptors, agonists mimic the natural messenger. So, they are used when there is lack of natural chemical messenger.

(iii) Chemical messenger – (a) Communicate message between

two neurons and that between neurons to muscles

As we know, from the name itself that a messenger should be something which is used in communication. Similarly, chemical messenger should be something which communicate ‘chemical messages’, which are electrical impulses, between two neurons and also between neurons to muscles.

(iv) Inhibitor – (e) Inhibit activities of enzyme

From the name we can identify inhibitors have some inhibiting nature. So what does it inhibit?

Inhibitors block the binding site of an enzyme and prevent the substrate from binding to it as a result, the catalytic activity of that enzyme is inhibited.

(v) Receptors – (c) Crucial to body’s communication process

Receptor is a crucial part to our body’s communication process. They are structures found in cell membrane and are made of proteins called glycoproteins. Receptors bind to specific molecules.

If the receptor has that molecule, we say that the molecule is activated else it is deactivated.

(i) Analgesic – (e) Pain killing effect

Analgesic falls under the group of drugs which is used to achieve analgesia, which is relief from pain. They act on our peripheral and central nervous system. Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing any disturbances to the nervous system. So, they have a pain killing effect. E.g. Morphine.

(ii) Antiseptics – (f) Applied to diseased skin surfaces

Antiseptics are substances which stop or slow down microbial growth. Therefore it is an antimicrobial substance. They are applied to living tissues or to our skin to reduce the possibility of infections. So they can also be applied to diseased skin surfaces. E.g. Hydrogen peroxide, iodine, boric acid.

(iii) Antihistamines – (d) Prevents the interaction of histamine with its receptor

Antihistamines, from the name itself, we get to know that it has ‘anti effect’. It means that it shows the inhibitory effect whenever histamine comes in contact to its receptor , or in other words, antihistamines prevent the binding of the receptor by blocking the binding sites of the receptor. They are anti-allergic drugs. E.g. Seldane.

(iv) Antacids – (g) Treatment of acidity

Antacids are substances which are used to neutralize the acids produced in stomach. Also it helps in relieving heat burns, indigestions and other problems. E.g. Milk of magnesia.

(v) Tranquilizers – (b) Treatment of stress

Tranquilizers are basically drugs which are used for treatment of anxiety, tension, fear or any disturbance of mind and helps in sleeping. It is therefore an antidepressant as it helps in restoring the balance of neurotransmitters in our brain. E.g. Phenelzine (C₈H₁₂N₂) or Nardil.

(vi) Antibiotics – (a) Inhibit the growth of microorganisms can be given orally.

Antibiotics are powerful medicines which are used to kill bacteria or inhibit their growth. Thus they help in fighting bacterial infections. It is used in the alternative treatment of meningitis, typhoid, dysentery, pneumonia. Along with that it is also used as an eye ointment for conjunctivitis. They can be given orally due to their low toxicity. If we are not sure the predictability of oral supply, then we can do it intravenously as well. E.g. amoxicillin, doxycycline, cephalexin.

(vii) Disinfectants – (c) Applied to inanimate objects.

Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents applied to non-living or inanimate objects so as to destroy the microorganisms living on that object. But they are harmful if they are applied on human tissue or skin as our skin is very sensitive and disinfectants would cause some ill effects on our skin. So to stop the microbial outgrowth on our skin, antiseptics are used which are milder as compared to disinfectants. E.g. Formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid.

• Penicillin (G) is not an antihistamine. It is rather an antibiotic as it is produced by a microorganism (Penicillium, which is a fungi) and it can destroy other microorganisms or can inhibit the growth (even in low concentration) by interrupting their metabolic process. Hence, it cannot fight antigens or inhibit the production of histamines(a chemical substance which causes allergic reactions in our body) like antihistamines.

The reason is also wrong because Penicillin (G) is only effective against gram-negative bacteria and not gram-positive bacteria as it has a narrow spectrum (range of its action is limited to only gram-negative bacteria that is why its spectrum is said to be narrow, not broad).

structure of Salvarsan:

• Sulpha drugs do contain sulphonamide group because sulpha drugs are generally derivatives of sulphanilamide such as salvarsan.

Sulphonamide is actually the active compound in salvarsan but it cannot be the reason why sulpha drugs contain sulphonamide group.

• Receptors are actually a protein in nature & their binding sites have different shapes, structures, & amino acid compositions ( main reason of proteinic nature).

• These receptors interact with several types of chemical messengers & they are selective & specific in their interaction with the messengers.

It is mainly due to their proteinic properties which allow the chemical messengers to bind to their binding sites and carry the message to one cell and communicate b/w cells (b/w 2 neurons & b/w neurons & muscles) which sometimes carry coded genetic information for the cell.

• Enzymes do have active sites that hold substrate molecules for certain chemical reaction in a living organism.

• This active site of enzymes usually holds the substrate molecule at a suitable orientation so that the substrate can interact with the reagent molecules.

• Substrates bind to the active sites through ionic bond, H-bonding, van der Waals interaction or dipole-dipole interaction.

Whereas, drugs inhibit the activities of enzymes by blocking the active sites & prevent the binding of the substrate to the site and thus disrupts the catalytic activity of enzymes.

• Therefore, drug’s competition with the suitable natural substrates by attaching covalently to active site of enzyme cannot be the reason for the given assertion statement.

• Chemical messengers are chemical substances which process the communication between 2 neurons and b/w neurons & muscles .

• These Chemical messengers are received by the receptors through bonding to the binding sites of the receptors proteins.

• To put up messengers, shape of a receptor site changes to transfer the message into cells.

• Thus the Chemical messengers transfer messages into cells without even entering the cell but it cannot explain the communication b/w cells and therefore the given assertion.

• Soaps which are transparent in nature generally made by dissolving soaps in ethanol, & then evaporating the excess solvent which results in crystallization of the soap, allowing light to pass; therefore creating transparency( crystals are transparent in nature that is why the term crystal clear is used).

• Sugar, glycerine are also used in this process

• Hence the reason can’t explain the given assertion.

• The assertion & reason statement states about 2 different reactions.

• The former (assertion) is precipitation whereas the latter is saponification which is basically heating of glyceryl esters (fatty acids with aqueous NaOH soln –

In this reaction esters of fatty acids are hydrolysed & the soap obtained remains in colloidal form.

• Precipitation of this solution is done by addition of NaCl(sodium chloride) which is a different process.

• Competitive inhibitors (drugs) compete with the natural suitable substrates for their attachment of on the active sites of enzymes.

• These kinds of drug block the binding active site of the enzyme & somehow prevents the linkage b/w enzyme & substrate inhibiting the natural catalytic activity of the enzyme.

• The reason statement, here is wrong because only non-competitive inhibitors ( different than competitive drugs) bind to a different site than the active site which is called the allosteric site of an enzyme resulting a change of shape in the active site of that enzyme in such a way it becomes impossible for the substrate to identify the active site and to bind to it.

• Thus these type of inhibitors (non-competitive) do not directly deal with the active site of the enzyme.

•

• Assertion statement is incorrect because, non-competitive inhibitors only bind to a different site of any enzyme which is generally called the allosteric site .

• Reason statement is correct because, by binding at the allosteric site the non-competitive inhibitors changes the shape of the active site of the enzyme in such a way that the substrate will not be able to identify it.

• Therefore, enzyme-substrate bonding is not possible.

• In case of living organisms communications b/w cells is very important and it occurs via receptors .

• In the body, message b/w neurons & neuron-muscles is communicated by a chemical substance called chemical messengers.

• These chemical messengers are generally received at the binding sites of the receptor proteins.

• In order to put up a message , shape of the receptor changes resulting the transfer of message into the cell & by the process the messengers give message to cells without even entering the cell.

• Receptors which are basically proteins do show selectivity for a certain chemical messenger due to the variety of in the shapes, structures and even their amino acid compositions.

• So different receptors interact with different types of chemical messengers

• The given reason statement is wrong as chemical messengers process communication b/w cells only do not pay any contribution to inhibition of any natural functions of the receptors.

• Food preservatives are not the only chemicals that are added to food items.

• There are also artificial sweetening agents(for use of diabetic patients to lower their calorie intake), antioxidants (preservation of food).

• Food preservatives only prevent foods from spoilage caused by micro bacterial growth.

• Food preservatives are generally added to a variety of food items due to their function of prevention of food from getting spoiled caused by some micro bacterial growth.

• Food Preservatives have functions like they inhibit the growth of microorganisms that they can’t be able to spoil the food.

• Artificial sweeteners such as- Aspartame, Saccharin(ortho-sulphobenzamide) are added to food products

• They are appear to be entirely inert & harmless when taken.

• They are also excreted easily from the body through urine unchanged.

• This is greatly valuable to the diabetic persons & people who need to control their calorie intakes as these artificial sweeteners do not provide calories.

1^st part:

Structure of Prontosil and Salvarsan are as follows

Prontosil Salvarsan

• Scientist Paul Ehlrich , in 1932 prepared the first effective antibacterial agent ,Prontosil which resembles in structure to the compound Salvarsan (Arsphenamine) , which was developed by also himself when he was researching with Arsenic based structures to produce less toxic substances for the treatment of Syphilis.

• The main resemblance b/w these 2 compounds (Salvarsan &Prontosil ) is the linkage b/w 2 Arsenics present in Salvarsan & linbkage b/w 2 Nitrogens in Prontosil.

• i.e., the –As=A s – present in Salvarsan & – N=N – present in Prontosil just that As atom present in Salvarsan instead of Nitrogen. And the fact that, both compounds convert to sulphonamide which is the real active compound ; as both the compounds are sulpha drugs.

2^nd part:

Yes, there is also resemblance between Azo dye and Prontosil in terms of linkage.

Azo-dye Prontosil

• The –N=N – linkage is present in both azo dyes & Protosil & in the same position holding 2 benzene rings.

• And like the tissues get coloured by the dyes selectively; Prontosil , the antibacterial agent selectivly binds to specific bacteria.

1^st part: catalytic action of enzymes-

• Enzymes are said to be biochemical catalysts, chemically which are just proteins.

• They only catalyze (enhances rate or betterment of a biochemical reaction) the biochemical reactions in the living systems without changing chemically.

• They are highly specific( binds to a certain substrate only); this specificity comes from possession of an active site.

• The shape of the active sites of any enzyme is cavity like in structure, which is built in such a way that only a specific substrate can fit there. (resembles the system of key-lock fitting).

• In their catalytic activity, the enzymes perform 2 major functions:

(i)

o At first, the enzyme would orient itself to hold a specific substrate for a chemical reaction.

o The active site of enzymes holds that substrate molecule in such a suitable position, that the reagent( chemical substance with which the substrate reacts) can attack the substrate effectively

o Substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme through a variety of interactions like-

Ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interaction or even through dipole-dipole interaction results in formation of enzyme-substrate complex, which later leads to the desirable product molecule(produced by substrate-reagent interaction).

(ii)

o The second function of the enzymes will be providing functional groups(reagents) that will attack the substrate and the chemical reaction will be carried out in the living body.

o Eg-

o

Urea, the substrate water, the reagent,

Urease is the enzyme which catalyses the reaction and results in formation of the product i.e. ammonia.

2^nd part:

Drug –target interaction (enzyme being the target)-

• Enzyme s are a major target for inhibitors like drugs.

• Drugs inhibit the natural activities of enzymes.

• They can block the active site of enzymes which leads to prevention in binding of the substrate to that binding site, thus drugs inhibit the catalytic activity of the enzyme, that is why they are called the enzyme inhibitors.

• There are 2 such ways by which drug-enzyme interaction occurs:

•

The competitive and non-competitive inhibitions.

o When drugs are competing with natural substrate (by mimicking their chemical structures) for attachment to the active site of enzymes, such drugs are called competitive inhibitors.

In another way, there are some other drugs too that do not directly bind to the active sites of the enzymes. Instead, they bind to a different site than the active site, which is called allosteric site.

This bondage changes the shape of the active site resulting the substrate not able to identify it, therefore no enzyme-substrate interaction occurs.

• Generally, if the bond which is formed between enzyme and the inhibitor is strongly covalent in nature that cannot be dissociated easily and enzyme gets blocked permanently.

• Then the body have to degrade enzyme-inhibitor complex & synthesize new enzyme.

1^st part:

Minimization of the pollution caused by synthetic detergents : Synthetic detergents are actually cleansing agents and have stronger cleansing power that the soaps, though having similar properties like soap. This is mainly due to their usability in even hard water (soaps cannot be used in hard waters) over soaps.

• The major problem with the usage of these synthetic detergents is that if their hydrocarbon chains are highly branched, they become non-biodegradable and hence turns into a threat to nature. Slow degradation of such heavily branched detergents leads to causing foams in rivers, ponds and other water bodies & water gets polluted (this is due to their ability to make foam both in hard & soft water even in acidic medium also).

So steps that are taken in now-a-days are:

• The branching of hydrocarbon chains is being controlled and kept as minimum as possible.

• Instead of heavily branched chains straight chain alkyl groups are used in manufacturing of synthetic detergents.

• Unbranched chains can be biologically degraded easily and hence pollution can be prevented to a certain amount.

2^nd part:

According to their chemical nature , the detergents can be classified into 3 categories-

(i)Anionic detergents,(ii) Cationic detergents & (iii) non-ionic detergents.

(i)Anionic detergents(containing anionic hydrophilic groups)

These are actually sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons

At first long-chain alcohols are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid then alkyl-hydrogen sulphates are formed

Then these alkyl-hydrogen sulphates that are formed are neutralized by alkali (NaOH solution) to form anionic detergents.

Similarly, alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by neutralizing alkyl benzene sulphonic acids by reaction with alkali.

In this type of detergents, the anionic part of the molecule is the actual cleansing agent.

Cationic detergents ( containing cationic hydrophilic group)

These are actually quaternary (four degrees, center atom having 4 groups ) ammonium salts of amines with acetates chlorides or bromides as the anionic part.

The cationic part contains long hydrocarbon chain and a positive charge on the central nitrogen atom.

Eg-

Cationic detergents generally have germicidal properties.

(ii) Non-ionic detergents( neutral in nature)

These kinds of detergents do not possess any ionic part in their constitution.

Instead, they contain non-ionic polar groups that can make hydrogen bonds with water.

Such detergents are formed when Stearic acid reacts with Polyethyl glycol.

Maximum of these types of detergents resembles that of soaps.

1^st part:

Enzyme inhibitors-

An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule of a bunch of molecules that bind to an enzyme and somehow inhibits or decreases its activity.

Many drugs are enzyme inhibitors because they can block the active sites of the enzymes or changes shape of it and causes prevention in the interaction between the enzyme and its substrate or inhibiting its catalytic activities.

2^nd part:

Enzyme inhibitors can be classified into 2 separate categories according to their mode of attachment on the active site of the enzymes-

(i)Competitive inhibitors & (ii) non-competitive inhibitors .

3^rd part:

Inhibition of enzymatic activity by enzyme inhibitors-

(i)Competitive inhibitors-

• This kinds of inhibitors (drugs) usually mimic the chemical structures of a natural substrate which is to bind in the active site of the enzyme.

• They compete with the natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites of enzyme and thus inhibiting the catalytic activity of that enzyme.

(iii) Non-competitive inhibitors –

• These drugs do not bind to the exact active site of the enzyme.

• Instead, it binds to another site of the enzyme than the active site, which is generally called allosteric site.

• This binding of the inhibitors at allosteric site brings change in the shape of the active site of the enzyme in such a manner that it will not be possible for the substrate to recognise and bind to the active site of the enzyme.

• Therefore non-competitive inhibitors destroy enzymatic action without any direct interaction with the active site of the enzyme.

• If the bond formed between the enzyme and the inhibitor during drug-target interaction is strongly covalent by nature then the enzyme gets blocked permanently that as that bond cannot be degraded easily; then the body has to degrade the whole enzyme-inhibitor complex and synthesize new enzyme, instead.