Introducing Western Sociologists

Enlightenment emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries when people started thinking about the world in new way. It is related to the development of new philosophy around human being and their thoughts.

While developing these philosophies the emphasis was on the human beings and their rational thoughts.

Human beings have the ability to think rationally and critically about anything or any person which has developed them as producers and user of all types of knowledge so we refer them as the “knowing subject”.

Enlightenment helps in developing attitude of mind which is secular, scientific and humanistic and this thinking was very important for the development of sociology.

Industrial revolution is said to be responsible for giving rise to sociology because it resulted in major changes in the social life. Some of them are being discussed below –

1. Capitalism: Capitalism is a type of social system where entrepreneurs are more interested in making profit. Due to industrial revolution, capitalism developed as a new form of economic activity and the growth of industries developed new attitude and market acted as the major instrument of productive life.

2. Degradation of Labour: The industrial revolution developed new methods of organising labour and market and it resulted in degradation of skilled craftsmen and common labours.

3. New urban world: People migrated from rural areas to urban areas and then the new urban world was characterized by overcrowded slums, pollutions from factories, new industrial working class, bad sanitation, new form of social interaction, etc.

4. Factory and mechanical division of labour: Industries developed the concept of collective functioning and continuous effort for better conditions and some sociologists took it as a deliberate attempt to destroy the peasants, artisan, family and local community.

5. Clock time as the basis for social organisation: The production process carried on by industries required the synchronisation of labour, on punctuality, steady pace and work urgency and so the social organisation of people were organised by the clock time.

6. Advent of modern Industrial society: The modern industrial society was developed due to industrialisation, which brought change in social behaviour and society. This developed the need to study the human behaviour and to monitor the thoughts and attitudes of the people and this gave birth to many sociological theories.

The various components of mode of production are being discussed below –

Productive forces: It includes all the factors of production like land, labour, technology, and capital.

Production relations: It includes all the economic relationships and the forms of labour organisations involved in the production process.

Superstructure: It includes the ideas and beliefs of people involved in the production process and also includes religion, art, law, etc.

Class structure: The class structure is created on the basis of relations to the mode of production. The capital provider or the owners of the means of production becomes the capitalist, higher class and the labour working for wages becomes the working class.

Class conflicts: The production process results in formation of class from where the class conflict is generated. However, it also depends upon the political and social conditions.

According to Karl Marx, classes are the groups having similar interests and common objectives. The class formation is a historical process. As the modes of production, technology and social relations change, these classes started opposing each other and this result in class conflict. The conflict between different classes lead to class struggle and this becomes the major driving force of change in society.

The class struggle develops due to class consciousness among the group members leading to conflict. When the oppressed class develops consciousness about being exploited by the oppressor class, then that is the emerging stage of conflict.

According to Emile Durkheim, sociology is the study of social facts. Social facts are the things that are external to an individual and they constrain the individual behaviour. They are the collective representations of social behaviour of a group of people.

Social facts are the social values that exist in the larger society and affect the functions of the individuals. So they are more important than the individual.

Durkheim carried out the study of 'suicide' to prove that sociology is based on social facts. According to it, suicide is the personal choice of an individual, but the average rate of suicide in the society reflects the social behaviour and it becomes a social fact.

Thus, social facts can be recognised through the social behaviour, and there aggregate pattern.

The main points of difference between ‘mechanical’ and ‘organic’ solidarity are stated below –

From the following points we can understand and conclude that moral codes are the indicators of social solidarity.

1. In social solidarity the codes of conduct were imposed on individuals by collective agreement.

2. For Durkheim, society was a social fact, which existed as a moral community and was above individuals.

3. Social solidarity exerts pressure on individuals to follow the norms and expectations of the group.

4. Moral codes are declaration of particular social conditions.

5. The moral code that is appropriate for one society may not be appropriate for other.

6. The prevailing social conditions could be the conclusions of the moral codes.

7. For example, the caste system prevailing in India is a moral code that reflects social solidarity among various groups belonging to same caste.

The basic features of bureaucracy are:

1. Functioning of Officials - Under bureaucracy the officials have fixed areas of jurisdiction, which are governed by rules, laws and administrative regulations. The regular activities of the bureaucratic organisation are distributed in a fixed manner as official duties. The higher authorities issue commands which are to be implemented by subordinates in a stable way. The responsibilities of officials are strictly bound by the authorities available to them. Only those who have persons who have the requisite qualifications to perform duties are employed.

2. Hierarchical Ordering of Positions - A proper hierarchical order is maintained on the basis of authority and office where the higher officials supervise the lower ones. It provides the scope of appeal to a higher official in case of dissatisfaction with the decisions of lower officials.

3. Reliance on Written Document - All the work done, orders issued, authorities assigned are in writing. It is a part of the public domain and is separate from the private life of the officials.

4. Office Management - It needs specialised and modern skills of management so it requires trained and skilled work force to conduct operations.

5. Conduct in Office - The official conducts in office are governed by exhaustive rules and regulations. These codes of conduct separate the behaviour of a person in his or her public and private domain.

The special or different kind of objectivity is needed in social science. This is called 'value neutrality'. According Max Weber, it is the duty of sociologists to identify and acknowledge their own values and to overcome their personal biases while conducting sociological research. It does not mean that one should not have opinions; however it means that the sociologists must try to overcome personal biases, particularly subconscious biases, at the time of analyzing data.

It is important for sociologists to understand the subject matter of sociology in an objective manner. For this, a sociologist will have to study and record the views of people and their personal beliefs in a neutral way through empathetic understanding. The sociologists must not try to skew data in order to match a predetermined outcome that aligns with a particular agenda.

The social scientists are also a part of society. So it is unique and at the same time difficult to maintain such objectivity.

The ideas or theories that led to the formation of social movements in India after Independence are –

1) Discrimination on Caste Basis - The major socialist movements took place to secure economic justice for backward classes. These groups had been exploited from ancient time and now they are trying hard to claim their place in society.

2) Discrimination on Gender Basis - The objective of feminism movements were to redefine the role of women in society and bring them equal to men. Feminist movements were against the stereotypes and its objective was to secure the rights of women at home and workplace. These movements have been successful to some extent.

3)Environmental Issues - Environmental movements have both environmental and social concerns. These movements are mostly based upon Gandhian ideals of peaceful agitation. Environmentalism has recently acquired attention among all societies due to the problems like climate change and its attendant costs, particularly for developing countries.

The ideas of Marx about India –

• He referred villages as the little communities of India.

• India is a self sufficient go and has no contact with outside world.

• It had its own Institutions and believes which controls the human behaviour.

• He was against the British rule in Indian society.

The ideas of Weber about India –

• He described Indian society as orthodox and suppressed.

• He stated that the Indian societies under the barriers of the caste system.

• India needs rational thinking with is opposed by the caste system.

• The basic hurdles in the economic development of the country are the religion and the caste system.

We should study the work of thinkers who died long ago because –

• It helps in understanding the impact of their ideologies to know the present-day societies well. For example, to understand the communist model and its failures, we must study the theories developed by Karl Marx on capitalism and communism.

• Some of the theories developed by the ancient scholars are still relevant in the present day societies. For example, the idea of bureaucracy by Max Weber is a very important element to understand the functioning of present day societies.

• Their theories also provide various information related to social developments of the past. For example, the progress of western societies compared to Asian societies can be understood through the study of Protestant-Ethic and the Rise of Capitalism by Max Weber.

We should not study the work of thinkers who died long ago because –

• They contain some old concepts which may not be applicable to the present day societies.

• Many of these theories have been criticised from time to time. For example, the western scholars forms the ideology that the Indian villages were self sufficient entity was criticised by the Indian scholars like M.N. Srinivas, according to whom, the villages were connected with the outside world.